Abstract
The article analyzes the pragmatic and textological traditions of the ritual for “neutralizing evil words” in the tantric and folk forms of Kalmykia. The popularity of the ritual in the past and present justifies the focus on this aspect. The study aims to analyze the structure and content of the texts used in performing the tantric ritual and in practicing its popular forms. It employs comparative-historical and textological methods based on the principles of historicism and objectivity. The ritual is a traditional tantric practice that seeks the help of Buddhist deities to remove obstacles to spiritual growth through visualization. The tradition includes two types of texts: tantric sutras and texts of mantras (Dharani). However, most practitioners were not prepared for this level of practice, leading to the development of popular folk forms of protection such as “cutting a black tongue” and other textual traditions. The analysis reveals that the verbal tradition of popular forms is also represented by two types of texts. The popularity of folk forms indicates that Buddhist teachings have long included an organic combination of the tantric ritual and its folk forms. The article targets specialists in Buddhist studies, religious studies, ethnologists, and historians of cultures.
References
Altan, S. (2007). An Oirad-Kalmyk Version of the “White Old Man” Sutra found among the Archives of the Late Lama Sanji Rabga Möngke Baqši. Mongolian Studies, 29, 13–26.
Bicheev, B. A. (2014). Rite of “cutting off the black tongue”: Tradition and modernity. Field Studies, 2, 87-101 (In Russian).
Birtalan, A. (2013). Cagān Öwgön – The White Old Man in the Leder Collections The Textual and Iconographic Tradition of the Cult of the White Old Man among the Mongols. In The Mongolian Collections. Retracing Hans Leder (pp. 84–94). Austrian Academy of Sciences Press.
Borjanova, T. G. (2007). Rite poetry of Kalmyks (system of genres, poetics). Kalmyk Book Publishers. (In Russian).
Center for Tibetan Medicine. (2022). http://www.kunpendelek.ru/library/buddhism/practics/blackscandal/ (In Russian).
Chelebi, E. (1979). The Book of the Journey (Extracts from the Essay of the 17th Century Turkish Traveller). Issue. 2. Nauka. (In Russian).
Dalai Lama XIV. (2008). The Sutra of Heart: Teachings on prajnaparamita. Ocean of Wisdom Publishing House. (In Russian).
Dulam, S. (2018). Research articles. Volume I. Myths, shamanic texts. Sojombo Pringing.
Foundation for the Development and Strengthening of Cultural Traditions “Drepung Gomang Center”. (2022). https://drepunggomang.ru/library/sutra-zamireniya-skandalov (In Russian).
Futaki, H. (2005). Classification of texts related to the White Old Man. Quaestiones Mongolorum Disputatae, 1, 35–46.
Gerasimova, K. M. (1980). On some aspects of assimilation of pre-Buddhist cults according to Tibetan rites. In Buddhism and medieval culture of the peoples of Central Asia (pp. 54-82). Science. (In Russian).
Gerasimova, K. M. (1999). Rites of protection of life in the Buddhism of Central Asia. Buryat Scientific Center of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences. (In Russian).
Heissig, W. (1966). Mongolische volksreligiose und folklorische Texte [Mongolian folk religion and folklore texts]. Franz Steiner Verlag. (In German).
Khodarkovsky, M. (2019). Russia's steppe frontiers How the colonial empire was created. 1500‑1800. New Literary Review. (In Russian).
Muzraeva, D. N. (2018). Text “Hara kele” from the collection of O. M. Dorzhiev. Mongolology (Mongol sudlal), 13(2), 71-85. https://doi.org/10.22162/2500-1523-2018-13-71-85 (In Russian).
Namǰil, T. (2010). The culture and traditions of the Oirat people. Religious beliefs. Šinǰang-un arada-un keblel-un horyi-a.
Ochirov, N. (1909). Yorelys, kharalys and related to the second “khara kele tulugan” at the Kalmyks. Zhivaya starina, XVIII(IV), 84-87. (In Russian).
Petrov, V. I. (2003). The Rebellious “Heart” of Asia: Xinjiang: A Brief History of the People's Movement and Memoirs. Kraft+. (In Russian).
Pozdneyev, A. M. (1887). Essays on the life of Buddhist monasteries and the Buddhist clergy in Mongolia in connection with the latter's attitude to the people. Typography of the Imperial Academy of Sciences. (In Russian).
Purbueva, C. P. (1984). The Biography of Neiji-Toin. A source on the history of Buddhism in Mongolia. Nauka. (In Russian).
Radnabhadra. (1999). “Moonlight”: A History of Rabjam Zaya Pandita. Petersburg Orientalism. (In Russian).
Saraswati Bhawan Publications. (n.d.). https://www.saraswatipublications.org/product/kha-chu-nag-po-sutra-called-black-lawsuit/
Sárközi, A. (1983). Incense-offering to the White Old Man. In Documenta Barbarorum. Festschrift für Walter Heissig zum 70. Geburtstag. Veröffentlichungen der Societas Uralo-Altaica Band, 18 (pp. 357–369). Otto Harrassowitz Verlag.
Sazykin, A. G. (Ed.). (2001). Catalog of Mongolian manuscripts and woodcuts of the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences (Vol. 2). Nauka. (In Russian).
Selected sutras of Chinese Buddhism. (2000). Nauka. (In Russian).
Sutra “Calming the Black Scandals”. (2022). https://board.buddhist.ru/showthread.php?t=18743 (In Russian).
Torchinov, E. A. (2000). Introduction to Buddhology. St. Petersburg Philosophical Society. (In Russian).
Trepavlov, V. V. (2002). History of the Nogai Horde. Nauka. (In Russian).
Yakhontova, N. S. (2014). Oirat manuscripts and woodcuts in the collection of the Institute of Oriental Manuscripts of the Russian Academy of Sciences. In The World of “Clear Writing.” Collection of scientific articles (pp. 5-26). KIGI RAS. (In Russian).
Zhukovskaya, N. D. (1977). Lamaism and early forms of religion. Nauka. (In Russian).
Zlatkin, I. Y. (1964). History of the Dzungar Khanate (1635-1758). Nauka. (In Russian).
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.